Understanding Contradictions
- People recognized that colonial rule caused India's economic struggles.
- Interests of all Indians—peasants, artisans, workers, intellectuals, and others—were intertwined.
Political, Administrative, and Economic Unification
- Economic fates of different regions were interconnected.
- Modern transport and communication helped bring leaders from different areas together, facilitating exchange of ideas and public opinion.
Western Thought and Education
- Modern education introduced Western ideas, shaping Indian political thought.
- English language enabled communication among nationalist leaders from various regions.
Role of Press and Literature
- By 1877, 169 vernacular newspapers reached a circulation of about 100,000.
- Newspapers and nationalist literature helped exchange political ideas among leaders from different regions.
Rediscovery of India's Past
- Research by European and Indian scholars revealed India's rich history and heritage.
- This boosted nationalists' self-respect and helped counter colonial myths of India's servility.
Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia
- British innovations led to the growth of an urban middle class.
- This educated class provided leadership to the Indian National Congress.
Progressive Socio-Religious Reform Movements
- Reform movements worked to remove social divides, promoting unity and Indian nationalism.
Impact of Contemporary Movements Worldwide
- National liberation movements in South America, Greece, Italy, and Ireland inspired Indian nationalists.
Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers
- Lytton’s policies, like the Delhi Durbar during famine and the Vernacular Press Act, angered many.
- Nationalists saw that justice was often compromised where European interests were involved.
Political Associations Before the Indian National Congress
Pre-Congress Campaigns
